From the ideal reading to the competent mediator. Metacognition and reading habits in teacher training.
Metacognición y hábitos lectores en la formación de docentes
The aim of this work is to help determine those factors that will allow the introduction of instructional changes to optimize the initial training of reading teachers. To do so the reading habits (self-perception of reading level, reading frequency, motivation...) presented by 170 teachers in training in relation to their preferred reading format (digital or conventional) and with their perception of metacognitive reading strategies are analyzed. The results show preferences for digital media both for recreational and academic reading, as well as a statistically significant better relationship with reading in women. There was a positive and significant correlation between reading habits and perception of reading metacognition, which deserves to be taken into account to reinforce reading processes (digital and conventional) during the training of these future mediators of reading.
Article Details
How to Cite
Díaz-Díaz, M., Echegoyen, Y., & Martín-Ezpeleta, A. (2022). From the ideal reading to the competent mediator. Metacognition and reading habits in teacher training.: Metacognición y hábitos lectores en la formación de docentes. Ocnos. Journal of reading research, 21(2). https://doi.org/10.18239/ocnos_2022.21.2.2967
Díaz-Díaz, Echegoyen, and Martín-Ezpeleta: From the ideal reading to the competent mediator. Metacognition and reading habits
in teacher training
Introduction
It is often argued that the skills teachers should possess in order to contribute
to the development of their students’ reading literacy competence are those that would
define an ideal reader. Among these, the starting point is a interest in and taste
for reading which, correctly enriched through technical and heterogeneous knowledge,
generate a critical capacity, impossible to subtract from complex or critical reading
and, therefore, essential to be a model reader or a teacher in charge of teaching
how to read literary texts. This is the picture described, among others, by the studies
of or more recently for the case of Spanish trainee teachers, which, however uncomfortable it may be,
should be related to and the conclusions of their “Peter Effect”: teachers in charge of teaching how to
read literature are not ideal readers or, what amounts to the same thing, are not
qualified for such a mission.
It is therefore important to know precisely the attitudes and reading habits of trainee
teachers, as this is the starting point for designing, implementing and evaluating
instructional and didactic changes in university curricula that will contribute to
a better development of their reading and literary competence, of their capacity for
literary and cultural mediation, and finally, of their teaching effectiveness. Thus,
this study, which supplements and complements other previous studies (; ; ; and, for the Spanish case, ; ; ; , among others), its main objective is to analyse the reading habits (self-perception
of reading level, reading frequency, motivation, etc.) of student teachers in relation
to the favourite reading format (digital or conventional) and the perception of the
metacognitive reading strategies they use.
The following research questions are derived from the main objective:
a)
What are the reading habits of student teachers? Are there significant gender differences?
b)
What is the favourite reading format (paper/digital) for student teachers?
c)
What is the level of perception of reading metacognition among student teachers?
d)
d) Is there any correlation between reading habits and the level of reading metacognition?
Attitudes and reading habits of trainee teachers
There are many studies aimed at generating a reading profile of student teachers,
including their attitudes, motivation, interests and reading habits. Obviously, as
developed by, understanding and intervening in teachers’ reading motivation is essential as it
is realised that a teacher who enjoys reading in his or her private life can become
a role model and mediate the consolidation of reading as a practice that is intrinsically
valued by his or her students. In the United States, the aforementioned research by
on the reading habits of trainee teachers showed that future heads of literary education
in American schools lacked an autonomous and consolidated reading habit, which did
not allow for an emotional and personal involvement with reading. It was clear that
their reading motivation was mainly extrinsic and, in general, the result of an academic
demand and whose main reward was the qualification. This worrying result has also
been found in other geographical areas, such as the United Kingdom (), Canada (), Ecuador () and Spain, among others. In the case of Spain, numerous studies have been published
on the reading behaviour of trainee teachers (to those mentioned above, we should
now add the following: ; ; ;), which support the view of the low appreciation of reading and the insufficient
reading skills of this population, which is so important for the education system.
This undervaluation of reading among student teachers converges in the adoption of
a simplistic and vague vision of the reading process, which omits both the linguistic
and didactic epistemic bases of reading required for its effective teaching in the
classroom (). In addition, practising teachers are not normally models of the ideal reader: on
the contrary, there is evidence of infrequent personal reading or that this is only
aimed at strengthening their academic-professional role (; ), leaving aside the appreciation of the act of reading as a relevant action in their
lives.
This chronic situation is aggravated by the so-called digital revolution and the diversification
of reading formats. Recent studies on reading habits do not forget to incorporate
this other type of reading processes that occur on screens (; ) and which involve the displacement of reading on paper or conventional reading in
both recreational and academic reading. Moreover, digital reading is linked to spaces
for socialising in digital communities and leisure (), placing conventional reading in professionalising spaces that require much greater
concentration (). These reading behaviours have undergone changes due to the current COVID-19 pandemic,
which has driven the use of digital resources and technologies in students’ academic
training.
Metacognition and reading literacy training for prospective teachers
The trainee teachers’ precarious reading habits and independent interest in reading
leads to a limited knowledge of reading comprehension strategies, especially those
of a metacognitive nature. As is well known, these strategies are essential to the
optimal development of the reading process, as they allow for the identification and
correction of disruptions that affect the textual comprehension dialogue between reader
and discourse. This dialogue includes planning, monitoring, checking, reviewing and
evaluating the cognitive mechanisms involved in reading (; ; ).
Metacognition thus plays a key role in learning performance (). Assuming that reading is one of the main tools for acquiring new knowledge, poor,
unintentional and poorly self-regulated reading skills negatively affect academic
and professional activities ().
On the other hand, emphasised that teaching reading requires teachers with a high level of competence
and flexibility. In this regard, they state that only when teachers are aware of what
their own comprehension involves, are they able to adequately monitor their students'
reading and provide them with appropriate instruction. Finally, they even state that
it is even more important for teachers to have metacognitive reflection than for their
own students. In the same vein, focus on the importance of students seeing that strategies are flexible and that
good readers use them according to the purpose of the reading and the demands of the
text. This requires teachers to develop, as they call it, a “pedagogical” understanding
of metacognition.
As regards the assessment of reading metacognition, there are validated instruments
in place, such as the Reading Awareness Scale (), aimed at pre-adolescent individuals that combines three metacognitive processes
(planning, monitoring and assessment) and three variables (activit, person and text);
or the Metacognitive Reading Strategies Perception Questionnaire (MARSI) (), which assesses both global reading metacognition and the use of different reading
strategies (global, reading support and problem-solving).
Although there are not as many instruments as for reading attitudes and habits, there
are several studies on the reading metacognition of trainee teachers. In summary,
they conclude a medium or medium-high level of metacognitive reading perception (; ), which would not match that of an ideal reader. Looking at the breakdown of this
research, it is noteworthy that a preference has been identified for the use of problem-solving
strategies, i.e., cognitive procedures used by the reader to avoid or correct problems
that affect text comprehension (; ; ). In contrast, reading support strategies (use of dictionaries, note-taking, etc.)
are the least preferred by prospective teachers when optimising their textual comprehension
(; ; ; ). In the end, it is clear that the link between trainee teachers and reading can
be greatly enriched.
Method
Participants
The research was carried out during the academic year 2020-2021 using a sample of
170 students of the 2nd year of the Degrees in Early Childhood Education (N=71) and Primary Education (N=99),
who were studying at a very relevant Spanish university. With regard to the demographic
characteristics of the sample under analysis, 87.6% of the participants were female
and 12.4% male, which corresponds to the study population. The age range of the prospective
teachers involved in the study ranged between 19 and 38 years, with an average age
of 20.1.
Instruments
Three duly validated instruments were used to fulfil the aims of this research: firstly,
to analyse the reading behaviour of prospective teachers, an extract of questions
taken from the Reading Habits Questionnaire of the Centro de Estudios para la Promoción
de la Lectura (CEPLI, as per its Spanish acronym) by ; secondly, the Conventional/Digital Reading Habits Questionnaire () was used to assess reading practices in terms of format and reading goals. Thirdly,
the Metacognitive Reading Strategies Perception Questionnaire (MARSI), developed by
, was used to measure the perception of metacognitive reading strategies. The latter
two instruments, originally in English, have been translated into Spanish.
To verify the validity of the Spanish translations of the two instruments, the Cronbach
Alpha statistical test was applied to each of the subscales that make up the instruments.
Thus, for the Conventional/Digital Reading Habits Questionnaire, a value of = .751 was achieved for Academic Print (5 items), = .815 for Academic Digital (5 items), = .862 para Recreational Print (5 items) y = .831 for Recreational Digital (3 items). On the other hand, for the Metacognitive
Reading Strategies Perception Questionnaire (MARSI), we obtained a value of = .748 for the global reading strategies scale (13 items); a value of = .732 on the problem-solving strategies scale (8 items); and, finally, on the support
strategies scale (9 items) a value of = .720. Global metacognition (30 items) obtained a value = .830. Finally, the validation of the first questionnaire on reading habits is provided
by the same authors (Larrañaga et al., 2008), which obtained a value = 0.852. Thus, the aforementioned values reflect the high internal consistency of
the three instruments from a statistical point of view. Therefore, this shows the
high reliability and validity in the measurement and evaluation of the various dimensions
of the act of reading.
With regard to the first instrument, it should be noted that it is made up of 12 closed-ended
questions that inquire into the reading behaviour of the subjects in its various dimensions,
such as reading frequency, motivation to read, self-perception of reading, etc. The
questions are multiple-choice, with a number of answers ranging from four to eight
alternatives.
The Conventional/Digital Reading Habits Questionnaire is made up of 18 items that
assess the attitude of individuals towards reading in four dimensions: reading in
digital and conventional format for academic purposes; and its counterpart, reading
in digital and conventional format for recreational purposes. Each item presents a
reading situation and participants assess their identification based thereon with
the statement using a 6-point Likert scale, where level 1 represents a low degree
of identification and level 6 a high degree of identification.
The third instrument, whose purpose is to assess the level of metacognitive awareness
of reading strategies, consists of 30 items describing various procedures that help
readers to enhance their textual comprehension, which are grouped into three scales:
global strategies, whose purpose is to set the stage for effective reading; problem-solving
strategies, which brings together those skills aimed at solving any disruptions during
reading; and, finally, support strategies, which encompasses the external resources
to which the reader can turn to promote comprehension. Each item responds to a 5-point
Likert scale structure. The reading metacognition rating scale is based on the average
of each of the three scales, with the following graduation as a reference: high (3.5
or higher), medium (between 2.5 and 3.4) and low (below 2.4).
Data analysis
The data obtained were processed using SPSS version 26 software. The first step was
to carry out a descriptive statistical analysis (mean and standard deviation) of the
scales that make up each questionnaire. The Mann-Whitney U test was used to determine
the existence of significant differences in reading habits by gender. Finally, Spearman’s
correlation was applied to determine the level of interrelation between the variables
of the reading habits questionnaire, conventional/digital reading formats and reading
metacognition. In all cases mentioned, the level of statistical significance used
was .05.
Results
Analysis of trainee teachers’ reading habits
The first questionnaire aims at analysing the reading behaviour of prospective teachers,
looking at key variables such as reading frequency, motivation for reading and number
of books read in a year, among others. With regard to voluntary and autonomous reading
(i.e., not motivated by an academic requirement), respondents reported reading regularly
(24.7%) or at least once or twice a week (18.8%). However, it is worrying that more
than half of the future teachers (56.6%) report reading rarely, once a month or quarterly,
or hardly ever.
Figure 1 shows the reading motivations of the surveyed population. 60% of trainee teachers
say that they read for pleasure, which would imply an autonomous motivation, an indication
of a consolidated reading habit. This is a completely contrary inference to the results
of the first item, which, as noted above, reflects a discontinuous and inconsistent
reading frequency. In addition, 51% of the research sample read for learning and 47%
for fun. There is thus an instrumental consideration of reading, with a low preference
for its recreational dimension.
Figure 1Motivation of trainee teachers to read
The above results also contradict the number of books read per student during the
last year, where 31.8% report reading only 1 or 2 texts on their own initiative. A
worrying 12.9% of trainee teachers report not reading any books at all. As for their
relationship with reading, future teachers evaluate it positively: 48.8% rate it as
“good” and 20% as “very good”. Less than 15% of respondents rated their reading record
negatively. To the question “Do you like reading?”, 42.9% of respondents said “quite
a lot” and 18.8% said “a lot”. In other words: 61.7% of future teachers report a high
liking for reading, compared to 8.2% who say they have a low affinity for the act
of reading and 30% who consider it “regular”. This preference of students for reading
is again contradicted when time spent per week on this activity is considered, as
a large proportion of respondents reported that they do not read regularly during
the week (35.9%), while those read frequently every week (6 to 10 hours) do not exceed
13.5%.
Figure 2 shows the results obtained in the reading self-perception of prospective teachers,
i.e., in the self-assessment of their own reading level based on their personal and
academic reading experiences. These results match those obtained by in a study with Catalan trainee teachers, where he observed that 50.5% of the sample
investigated were categorised as strong, competent readers with a consolidated reading
habit.
Figure 2Self-perception of trainee teachers’ reading levels
On analysing the results of the reading habits questionnaire according to gender,
differences between genders are found. Men report reading more books for pleasure
(66.6% of men read more than three books for pleasure in the last year compared to
53.8% of women), while women spend more time reading and have a better relationship
with reading and a greater enjoyment of the act of reading, as well as a higher perception
of their reading level. According to the Mann Whitney U-test (see table 1), these differences are statistically significant in the case of the relationship
with reading and the enjoyment of reading. These results are consistent with other
research in both adult (; ) and youth populations (), where women’s attitudes towards reading and their reading activity were higher
than those of men.
Question
Gender
Average range
U
z
p
How many books did you read for pleasure last year?
Woman
85.18
1517.50
.231
.817
Man
87.74
If you are a regular reader, how much time do you spend reading per week?
Woman
86.02
1487.50
.375
.707
Man
81.83
How would you define your relationship with reading from childhood until today?
Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics for each of the scales that make up the MARSI questionnaire,
which assesses students’ perceptions of the reading strategies they use to help them
comprehend a text ().
Scale
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Standard Deviation
Global strategies
1.9
4.8
3.46
.57
Problem-solving strategies
2.1
5.0
4.15
.56
Support strategies
1.3
4.9
3.49
.66
Global metacognition
1.9
4.9
3.69
.52
Table 2Descriptive statistics for each of the scales that make up the reading metacognition
awareness questionnaire
As can be seen, student teachers have a high level of awareness in reading metacognition
(M=3.69), as well as a preference for the use of problem-solving strategies (M=4.15),
followed by support strategies (M=3.49) and, lastly, global strategies (M=3.46). This
convergence in the results shows that problem-solving strategies, such as re-reading
complex paragraphs or hypothesising, are techniques known to students when facing
difficulties in textual comprehension.
Digital and conventional reading habits
Table 3 shows the descriptive statistics of the questionnaire on digital and conventional
reading habits for both academic and recreational purposes. The highest preference
is for recreational reading in digital format (M=5.16), which covers reading practices
linked to leisure reading on the Internet, social networks, online texts, etc. This
is followed by recreational reading in print (M=4.79), such as novels, comics and
manga; digital academic reading (M=4.16), whose high preference may be due to the
extensive use of digital texts in universities due to the COVID-19 pandemic; and,
finally, print academic (M=3.78), whose low choice by prospective teachers may also
be due, in an inversely proportional sense, to the increase in the burden of digital
academic reading and the decrease in the use of physical media in schools.
Scale
Min.
Max.
Mean
Standard deviation
Academic Digital
2.0
6.0
4.16
.81
Academic Print
2.0
5.60
3.78
.80
Recreational Digital
3.0
6.0
5.16
.82
Recreational Print
2.6
6.0
4.79
.93
Table 3Descriptive statistics of the four scales that make up the conventional and digital
reading habits questionnaire
Correlation between reading habits, reading metacognition and reading in digital/conventional
format
The last objective of this study is to analyse the link between the reading habits
of student teachers and their perception of their reading metacognition and their
attitudes towards reading in a digital or conventional format. Tables 4 and 5 show the Spearman correlations between the reading behaviour variables and the reading
metacognition perception (in its three subscales and the global value), as well as
their attitudes according to the reading format.
Reading habit
GS
PSS
RSS
GlM
How many books did you read for pleasure last year?
Table 4Spearman correlations for reading habits and reading strategies (GS: global strategies;
PSS: problem-solving strategies; RSS: reading support strategies; GlM: global metacognition)
As can be seen, numerous significant correlations between all the variables under
analysis are found. The most significant correlations of the different reading strategies
and global metacognition are found with the link to reading and the declared liking
for reading. Therefore, it is assumed that prospective teachers who positively value
reading skills are those who have a higher perception of their reading strategies.
The number of books read for pleasure has significant correlations with problem-solving
strategies and support strategies, but not with global and total metacognition strategies.
This may indicate that recreational reading, being free from external demands and
the complexity of academic texts, is not accompanied by pre-reading planning, and
that the effort made by the subjects for comprehension focuses on a very small and
localised use of problem-solving and support strategies.
Reading habit
AD
AP
RD
RP
How many books did you read for pleasure last year?
Table 5Spearman correlations for reading habits and reading formats (AD: academic digital;
AP: academic print; RD: recreational digital and RP: recreational print)
Finally, it should be noted that print reading formats maintain significant correlations
with most of the reading practices under analysis. In particular, the print recreational
factor maintains positive and significant relationships with all reading habits variables
at the 0.01 level, especially relevant for reading enjoyment with a value of R = 0.735.
The print academic factor shows positive and significant correlations with all variables
except the reading level of the trainee teachers. In contrast, the only significant
correlation that the digital format (only in its academic version) maintains is with
the number of books read. This is an indication of the predominance of the physical
medium by more experienced readers, to the detriment of the digital format.
Discussion and conclusions
The results of this study on reading habits show that more than half of the teacher
training students surveyed read occasionally, an indication of discontinuous and unconsolidated
reading behaviour. They mainly read for academic reasons, which shows an instrumental
valuation of reading (; ). However, self-perception of reading is quite high, which shows a contradiction
between their own assessment of their reading behaviour and what they actually read.
In general, these prospective teachers have a high self-perception of their reading
skills, which does not correlate with effective and frequent reading practice (; ). In addition, greater preference for reading has been identified among women, who
rate their reading history since childhood more positively.
At this point, it should be borne in mind that reading is a process that - in addition
to the communicative needs and characteristics of individuals - is affected by the
characteristics of the cultural context in which it takes place and the nature of
the discourses which are propagated in a given era. Reading is not about decoding
linguistic information only, but also about integrating sensory and motor processes
based on the reader’s experience and cultural and social context (), a context which in turn also influences metacognitive strategies (). Moreover, becoming a reader in the digital age has meant changes in both reading
patterns and preferred reading formats (). Therefore, as Mangen and van der Weel (2019) conclude, a new integrative and transdisciplinary
model of textual reading that accounts for its psychological, ergonomic, technological,
social and developmental aspects is needed in the current context. These authors even
to propose the existence of different subjective experiential dimensions of reading
according to different types of texts and purposes.
All this helps to explain the contradictions detected in defining oneself as a reader
when one does not read. Reading continues to be something socially prestigious and
campaigns to promote (prestige) reading only serve to update collective beliefs that
value reading, regardless of the fact that this does not always translate into reading
practice. Moreover, the diversification of the reading process brought about by the
progressive technological progress in all spheres of life has led to a reformulation
of the role of the reader; but also of the very concept of reader (normatively, ‘who
reads or has the habit of reading [books]’), which raises the question of whether
an identification is not being extended between reader and literate or a person who
reads texts not necessarily in books.
Finally, the trainee teachers’ perception of reading metacognition is at a high level,
with a preference for problem-solving strategies. These results are consistent with
previous studies (; ; ; ; ). Statistical analysis showed that people who have a positive vision of reading and
who read frequently have a higher metacognitive awareness of comprehension strategies.
Moreover, this type of experienced reader prioritises conventional reading, i.e. in
physical format, to the detriment of digital media, and regardless of whether the
reading undertaken is for recreational or academic purposes, as explains.
From the above, it can be concluded that reading on paper helps to optimise metacognitive
awareness in reading strategies, in contrast to reading in digital format. The significant
correlations found between the variables studied support this conclusion. Thus, the
significant correlations between reading habits and metacognitive awareness show that
trainee teachers who enjoy reading have a higher perception of their reading strategies,
a phenomenon that is reiterated in the self-perception of the reading profile. Furthermore,
reading habits are also significantly correlated with reading formats: the most skilled
and proficient readers tend to prefer print, both in academic and leisure situations.
The results of this research must logically be interpreted taking into account some
logical limitations, such as the high percentage of women in the sample compared to
the presence of men (this is a convenience sample which, in any case, corresponds
to the study population). It should also be borne in mind that research instruments,
although validated, may have their limitations.
That said, the results explained above not only allow us to carefully identify the
reading profile of trainee teachers, but they must also be interpreted as the basis,
the foundations, on which to build the instructional and didactic changes that the
training of readers requires. Future teachers, or rather teachers of the future, need
to change their relationship with reading and develop a richer reading process that
will give them better results, i.e., better reading comprehension and also better
technical knowledge about reading practice, which is crucial for teaching reading
beyond basic reading literacy. Fostering metacognitive awareness of reading enriches
the hermeneutic dialogue maintained with the discourses and, furthermore, favours
their didactic transfer to novice and inexperienced readers. Teachers who know how
to regulate and monitor their reading have a much better chance of effectively transferring
the procedures used for this purpose.
In this sense, the reading training of teachers must therefore include these metacognitive
aspects, which means promoting epistemic reflection on reading, which in the case
of trainee teachers awaits the attention that writing has received. It is understood
that university students have developed a personal, almost spontaneous way of reading,
and now it is a question of making them aware of it, of conceptualising it on the
basis of technical terms specific to their didactic training, such as planning, revision,
evaluation, etc. This will be the definitive step to intervene by reinforcing those
specific phases and strategies of the reading process, which will surely help them
to grow as readers, but also as reading mediators.
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