This paper examines the representation of diversity projected onto prehistory in Yuval Noah Harari's comic book Sapiens: A Graphic History, The Birth of Humankind (2020). Through this graphic adaptation of the essay Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (2014), the Israeli historian offers a new reading of prehistoric society, while challenging multiple stereotypes and prejudices that shape the collective imaginary about those remote times. In view of the latest trends in Translation Studies, which invite scholars to understand the concept of translation beyond the linguistic sphere, the graphic version of Harari's essay can be seen as a multimodal translation, a combination of intralingual and intersemiotic translation (Jakobson 1959/2000). In order to explore the importance of expressions of diversity in both works, a parallel reading of them was carried out and the model of translatological and semiological analysis proposed by Pereira (2008) has been applied. The study has shown that, through the translation, Harari confects an ideological message to establish parallels between prehistoric times and the contemporary world, in terms of ethnic-cultural, affective-sexual and gender diversity.
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How to Cite
Savchencova, M. (2023). From essay to comic: in search of diversity in the multimodal translation of Sapiens. Ocnos. Journal of reading research, 22(1). https://doi.org/10.18239/ocnos_2023.22.1.334
Savchenkova: From essay to comic: in search of diversity in the multimodal translation of Sapiens
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, comics have moved far beyond mere entertainment and are conceived as a didactic
and communicative tool, a multisemiotic space, capable of explaining complex topics.
As Fernández de Arriba observes in a recent interview with , “[i]n many cases the academy has difficulties in reaching the general public and
the use of comics is a very powerful resource for disseminating knowledge that [...]
generally does not reach public opinion via traditional channels” (p. 93). This idea has been reflected in the work of Israeli historian Yuval Noah
Harari, who recently translated the first chapter of his bestselling essay, Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (2014), into the multimodal comic book format and transformed it into an “excellent
graphic manual of prehistory”, according to definition. At the same time, it is important to take into account that comics not
only disseminate knowledge, but also transmit ideologies of the era in which they
were created (; ). In this sense, prehistory is no exception, since, as points out, “each generation has reflected prehistoric times in comics according
to their perspectives, values and prejudices” (p. 60).
This paper aims at studying how the comic book entitled Sapiens represents diversity, inherent to our contemporary society and in the ideologies that
shape it, in the context of a prehistoric society. It also proposes to contrast these
representations with those of the original essay. We will perfom an analysis from
the perspective of translation studies, which, in line with its latest theories (; ), allows us to consider the graphic adaptation of the essay as a multimodal translation
(; ), where “the verbal and the visual are woven into one entity” ().
Prehistory in comics: a breeding ground for stereotypes
Despite important archaeological discoveries in recent decades that shed light on
different aspects our ancestors’ lives, the origins of human history are still full
of gaps and uncertainty. Each discovery presents unknown realities, which are subject
to interpretations by prehistorians and archaeologists. Just like translators, they
use these sources to (re)construct their version of a prehistoric phenomenon or, in
words, translate reality. No specialist is able to define the real meaning of a ceremonial
object, nor to explain with any certainty how societies functioned or families were
formed in those bygone times.
The lack of data on this extensive historical period, as well as the unceasing curiosity
to discover our origins, has resulted in a series of beliefs and hypotheses that usually
feed on existing prejudices and interests. Thus, when representing prehistoric humanity
in academic papers, art or literature—sometimes deliberately, but often unintentionally—we
project the values and stereotypes that govern society at a certain stage of its development.
In this sense, comics as a mass medium and an agent of “masking reality” () are an ideal space to cultivate these stereotypes. Moreover, the vast majority of
comics that deal with the lives of the first human beings recreate prehistoric landscapes
with the only purpose of setting up their own imaginary worlds, hence ignoring the
latest archaeological findings. As a result, in many prehistoric-themed comics, the
image of our ancestors is anchored to dominant ideologies that have ignored—and often
continue ignoring—the importance of representing diversity. In contrast to the position
of the most progressive prehistorians and other experts in areas related to prehistory
(; ; ; ), comic panels portray our ancestors as white-skinned members of nuclear, heteronormative
families, in which the supposed roles of men and women are based on gender stereotypes.
Probably due to the proliferation of anachronisms and the decontextualization of the
past in prehistoric-inspired comics (), the analysis of their relationship with prehistory as a discipline has been very
scarce in academic circles. Given the lack of such studies, the Prehistory Museum
of Valencia has published a book entitled Prehistoria y cómic (), the result of collaboration between several experts in both subjects. This project
is part of a pioneering exhibition in Spain, which has brought together more than
a hundred examples of humour, fantasy and documentary comics that build paradigms
about the remote times of human beings. The volume brings eleven pieces of research
together, as well as reflections, that examine how the graphical representation of
prehistory changes in comics, depending on the audience and age, throughout the existence
of the genre. Despite the fact that many of the characters analysed, such as the Flintstones,
Ka-Zar, and Altamiro de la Cueva, bear little relation to the world of early hominids—their
“adventures in period costumes” () are a mere reflection of the shifting 20th century ideologies—, the book authors emphasise there are increasingly more prehistoric-themed
comics that fit into the realistic trend (; ). These realistic comics are a discursive crossover between fiction and archaeological
documentation, an alliance between researchers and cartoonists. Nevertheless, this collaboration between illustrators and specialists in prehistory
has not contributed noticeably to a more varied representation of prehistoric society
either; looking closely at realistic comics, we notice an abundance of gender clichés,
as well as a representative shortfall in terms of multiculturalism and diversity.
Sapiens: an iconic-verbal turn to diversity in prehistory
In response to the need to present a more plural and diverse image of prehistory to
our globalised society, which feeds on transnational discourses and seeks to (re)construct
heterogeneous realities, the comic book Sapiens: A Graphic History, The Birth of Humankind (2020) was born. It is an adaptation of the first chapter of Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (2014), a bestseller penned by Yuval Noah Harari, professor at the Hebrew University
of Jerusalem. In his book, Harari, a professional historian, breaks with the traditional
frameworks of his discipline in order to to translate knowledge into narrative, to
“find in the word [...] new vessels that follow different paths” () and to share a series of philosophical reflections on the development of human history
from a macrohistorical perspective.
As the author states, by means of the graphic novel, he aims to reach new readers
and encourage them to think about our reality critically and in a global context (). In the rewriting process, the historian not only introduces fictional elements
into his clearly non-fictional work, but also uses humour and fills his narrative
with numerous intertextualities and winks to existing comics. The author has managed
to translate his essay with the help of David Vandermeulen, who adapted the original
text to comic format, and Daniel Casanave, an illustrator, who interpreted and has
transformed Harari’s and Vandermeulen’s words into panels. In this sense, and in line
with theory, Vandermeulen, like Harari himself, assumes the role of an intralingual translator,
who reformulates the text within the same language, and Casanave, in turn, becomes
an intersemiotic translator, who interprets verbal signs through the signs of a non-verbal
system. Given the multimodal nature of comics (; 1), switching between verbal and visual code, and in accordance with the latest theories
in translation studies (; 9), which conceive translation as a phenomenon inherent to any communicative act,
we believe it is appropriate to refer to the comic Sapiens as a multimodal translation of the original essay.
On studying the first volume of the multimodal translation of Sapiens, we soon discover the presence of another translator involved in the book rewriting
process and whose name does not appear in the original essay: a diversity consultant.
Slava Greenberg, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Southern California,
a specialist in trans studies, gender studies and functional diversity, has been chosen
to fulfil this role. In the acknowledgments in the last pages of the comic book, Harari
(apud ) highlights Greenberg’s role in providing valuable input on human diversity and in
helping them all to avoid mistakes in this respect.
Regarding expressions of diversity and otherness in the case of the graphic novel,
there is a notable concern for representing people of different genders, cultures,
ethnicities, religions and sexual orientations. Sapiens presents an x-ray of our plural, hybrid and mestizo society, which “opts for [...] the intercommunication between paradigms and for the
equality in difference” (). Thus, in the pages of the comic, we meet various researchers—both women and men—from
India, Brazil, Japan, Germany and England, who, together with Harari, investigate
the lives of our ancestors. An inclusive approach is observed in the configuration
of secondary and circumstantial characters at the same time. Special attention should
be paid to Dr. Fiction, a character whose gender does not conform to social conventions
of femininity and masculinity.
As a result thereof, we wonder what place different representations of diversity in
prehistoric societies—a popular topic among researchers, but barely studied outside
the academy—occupy in the Sapiens comic book. And how, in comparison to the first chapter of the original essay, Harari’s
team reconstructs those realities in the multimodal translation. Our starting hypothesis
is that, through the iconic-verbal format, and following the rhetorical question “[p]ower
of the drawer, impotence of the historian?” (), Harari attempts to reshape an orthodox collective imagination view on prehistory,
as well as to project this new paradigm to present-day society.
METHOD
The analysis of diversity representations presentedin this research is qualitative
and is conducted through the interdisciplinary lens of translation studies and semiotics.
Since the inauguration of the translational turn () and the outward turn (), it has been demonstrated on numerous occasions that translation studies have much
to offer to the methodology of other epistemological areas. Therefore, in the first
place, we will focus on a theoretical proposal that serves as a model for the translatological
and semiotic analysis of comic books, and can be applied to our case. After that,
we will carry out a parallel reading of the original corpus in English and its graphic
adaptation in order to identify expressions of diversity in the prehistoric context.
Finally, we will bring together the observed examples in order to examine them according
to the chosen theoretical model.
Interest in comics and picture books within the framework of translation studies is
a relatively recent phenomenon (); nowadays, it is on the rise and has already been embodied in numerous academic
works. Only in 2021, three important journals in the field of translation studies,
Panacea, Estudios de Traducción and Translation Matters, dedicated their monographic issues to the translation of these multimodal products.
Furthermore, more and more published books provide an overview on the link between
comics and translation (; ) and more studies are focusing on topics such as the translation of children’s comic
books (; ), the translation of humour in comics (), etc.
As for the main graphic narrative approaches reflected in research papers, highlights two trends: on the one hand, analysing translations of comics into specific
languages and cultures, and, on the other, applying to the study of comics the concept
of translation in its broadest sense, beyond the linguistic and cultural terms, and
in line with and . The studies that belong to the second category understand translation as a way of
transmitting information (). These are interdisciplinary researches that study illustrations as forms of translation,
reflect on adaptation, reinterpretation or transmediation, explore intertextualities
in comics, and examine the sequential art evolution from a translation studies perspective.
In regard to these two trends, ) states the following:
[T]he study of comics translation concerns not only the domain of translation studies
in a more restricted sense, [...] but also the interrelations and exchanges between
comics and other media since, as Mitchell (2014, 259) suggests, comics can perhaps
be best defined as a trans-medium ‘moving across all boundaries of performance, representation,
reproduction, and inscription to find new audiences, new subjects, and new forms of
expression ... because it is translatable and transitional, mutating before our eyes
into unexpected new forms’. (p. 454)
In order to define a model for our analysis, we have consulted several studies that
approach the graphic narrative translation from the viewpoint described by Zanettin
and consider iconic-textual adaptations as multimodal translations, discourses that
construct a new meaning from an existing one (). After reviewing the bibliographical references regarding the processes of media
change from literary texts to the language of comics (; ;8) and failing to find a methodological proposal applicable to our corpus, we have
opted to explore the investigations that focus on the intersemiotic translation from
text to illustrations (; ; ).
Despite the fact that the subject of our study is not images, but comic panels, which
bring together the visual and the verbal, we have realised that some models of text-illustration
analysis are perfectly extrapolable to the text-comic case. Among these proposals,
model, based on the theoretical framework of translation studies and semiotics, stands
out. This model is distinguished for being sufficiently broad and, at the same time,
precise enough to interpret a complex corpus. Moreover, Pereira pays special attention
to the ideological power of illustrations, also present in comics, which “translate
ideologies and thoughts of each era” () and are themselves “a powerful vehicle of ideology” (). Thus, according to Pereira's model applied to text-comics, comic panels can translate
texts in three different ways: 1) by reproducing textual elements in the panel; 2)
by emphasising a specific narrative aspect and giving it more prominence in the cartoon;
3) by adapting panels to a certain ideology or artistic trend.
RESULTS
Upon examining the corpus and analysing the multimodal translation based on proposal, we found a significant asymmetry in the representation of diversity in
both the comic book and the essay. While the essay does not delve into diversity in
prehistoric times, in contrast, multiple diversity expressions do appear in the pages
of the graphic novel. These differences are especially noticeable in terms of ethno-cultural
and sexual-affective diversity. Regarding gender diversity and the representation
of women, the historian uses inclusive language in the essay when referring to the
first human beings. However, in the comic book the feminist message about the role
of women in prehistory is intensified. On several occasions, our female ancestors
even represent the entire species Homo sapiens, which is something unusual for comics and, in general, for popular culture, that
is used to associating the word Sapiens with a prehistoric man. In the following sections, we will illustrate how Harari—together
with other translators, namely, Vandermeulen, Casanave and Greenberg—translates his
own work to make it more inclusive, more in line with both our contemporary hybrid
society and the prehistoric era.
Ethno-cultural diversity
In Espejos: una historia casi universal, warns that “[t]he human adventure in the world began in Africa, [...] [d]ifferent
paths led [our ancestors] to different destinies, and the sun took care of the distribution
of colours” (p. 1). In tune with the Uruguayan writer’s words, Harari, through his
comic book, aims to show that we are part of a multicultural world, in which there
should be no place for racism, discrimination or distinctions between cultures, as
we all come from the same continent, Africa, and the same species, Homo sapiens.
How does the historian introduce the book’s main characters: the Sapiens? In the essay,
points out that the first humans were not anything special: “The most important thing
about prehistoric humans is that they were insignificant animals with no more impact
on their environment than gorillas, fireflies or jellyfish” (p. 4). He then adds a
tinge of irony: “Presumably, everyone reading this book is a Homo sapiens” (). This same fragment changes perspective completely in the comic. While the first
part, accompanied by an image of Harari in the jungle, remains largely intact: “The
truth is there was nothing special about these early humans. There were still regular
animals with no more impact on their envinronment than baboons, fireflies or jellyfish”,
significant modifications are coming in the second part: “One very important thing
about ancient humans is that they didn’t all belong to the same species. Nowadays,
people around the world may look different and speak different languages, but we’re
all the same species–Homo sapiens” (). These speech balloons are placed next to a drawing of eight representatives of
different cultures: an Inuit woman, an Indian man, an African man, etc. (Figure 1). Harari himself is among the characters, he is one person more among all these representations
of diversity.
Figure 1Representation of ethno-cultural diversity ()
The historian highlights multiculturalism is an important characteristic of the present
day in more comic panels. For example, he emphasises that “[a]ll the distinctions
that seem so important today—French and German, Christian and Muslim, black and white—are
very recent inventions, and they don’t have much influence on human evolution” (). This statement has a corresponding illustration: three people of different nationalities
are listening attentively to a lecture. However, the quoted passage does not appear
in the original work. In the case of the essay, highlights religious diversity, “today we can educate our children to become Christian
or Buddhist” (p. 11), but he does not contrast concepts such as French/German or black/white.
In fact, one of the statements in the original work contradicts his view of the black/white
relationship as a recent invention: “Between blacks and whites there are some objective
biological differences, such as skin colour and hair type, but there is no evidence
that the differences extend to intelligence or morality” (). Therefore, we understand that, when mentioning the black/white antithesis in the
graphic novel, he refers to race rather than to biological reality, following the
approach of the renowned anthropologist . After applying the translation analysis model proposed by to these specific cases, we can observe that, in comparison to the original text,
Harari chooses to expand the iconic-verbal translation and adapt it to the current
ideology, which endorses plurality.
In the comic book, Harari not only reaffirms the multiculturalism of our contemporary
society, but he also places emphasis on the skin colour of Sapiens and Neanderthals.
Homo sapiens came from Africa and needed protection from the harmful effects of ultraviolet rays;
hence, according to several scientists (, the colour of their skin was dark. In turn, it has been proven that Homo neanderthalensis individuals lived in Europe and Asia, and were red-haired and light-skinned. So,
while the essay once indicated what the Neanderthals looked like—“[g]enetic evidence
hints that at least some Neanderthals may have had fair skin and hair” ()—, in the multimodal translation the difference between Neanderthals and Sapiens,
clearly seen in their skin colour, is constantly referred to. Thus, Sapiens have the
physical characteristics of the current representatives of the African continent,
whereas Neanderthals are illustrated with white skin and orange-coloured hair (Figure 2).
Figure 2Representation of Sapiens and Neanderthals ()
Using this visual resource, Harari emphasises our African origin. On the other hand,
when we look at other prehistoric-themed comics (including those of the realistic
trend), we realise that no attention has been paid to this aspect at any time: Sapiens’
appearance is usually represented by a present-day white person.
Sexual-affective diversity
Although no archaeological evidence of sexual-affective diversity in prehistoric societies
has been detected to date, neither is there evidence that early humans were exclusively
heterosexual. In fact, in his book Homosexuality in History, highlights the results of a series of anthropological investigations which, after
studying some tribes existing today, suggest the presence of homosexual relations
in prehistoric times. On the other hand, a group of psychologists () states that, in those distant times, sexuality was probably not understood in binary
terms.
As for Sapiens, Harari chooses two very different contexts to introduce representations of sexual-affective
diversity. On the one hand, in the comic book he creates a couple of Neanderthal men
who, when accused of being aggressive and dragging women by their hair, declare themselves
to be gay (Figure 3). Through this comic resource, the historian, together with his collaborators, shows
our orthodox understanding of prehistory. Given the influence of mass media or museum
images that depict early humans, we assume their relationships were heteronormative,
but this is an assumption actually.
Figure 3Representation of sexual-affective diversity ()
On the other hand, in the essay ) tackles the conception of homosexuality as unnatural: “There is little sense, then,
in arguing that [...] homosexuality is unnatural” (p. 166). The author explains how,
over the course of history, different cultures, religions and political structures,
in pursuit of their own interests, have tried to construct discourses around homosexuality
as an unnatural and even destructive phenomenon. In the comic book, this passage is
translated multimodally into a symbolic confrontation between the scientific community,
formed by Harari and other scholars, and a father of a large family who attends a
conference on the origin of human beings and is outraged to hear about family diversity
in prehistory (). One of this character’s main arguments is that heteronormative nuclear families
are natural and homosexuality is not. Harari responds to these claims through another
fictional character, biologist Saraswati, who provides numerous examples of relationships
beyond heteronormativity in different species of apes, our closest relatives. According
to approach, when translating sex-affective diversity in the comic book, Harari applies
two strategies. In the case of the representation of the gay Neanderthals, he is guided
by ideology and leaves the original framework. And in the second example, in comparison
with the essay, he emphasises the idea that homosexuality is natural and intrinsic
to human beings.
Gender diversity
“No! Prehistoric women did not spend their days sweeping the cave! What if it turns
out that they also painted Lascaux, hunted bison, carved utensils and devised innovations
and social advances?”: this is how the book by the renowned French prehistorian begins. The author draws on the latest discoveries of human fossils and new techniques
for analysing archaeological discoveries to challenge the representation of prehistoric
women as inferior and submissive beings. We are referring to the beliefs and stereotypes—existing
in the collective imagination and embodied in comics, as well as other media—, which
make our female ancestors invisible and represent them as subordinate figures, sexual
objects, or mothers who take care of their children, sustain families and dedicate
themselves to cooking. As observes, “the comic has taken to the extreme all the clichés about prehistory that
have been reproduced over the last centuries” (p. 169), and one of the most repeated
clichés is the patriarchal character of prehistoric society.
What is the position of Harari and the other creators of Sapiens regarding the role of prehistoric women? It is noteworthy that, in the essay, the
historian usually refers to early humans as Sapiens or simply humans, terms that include both men and women. At the same time, we found that, when using
words such as men or man to refer to our species, adds women or woman: “[a]n ivory figurine of a 'lion-man' (or 'lioness-woman')” (p. 25); “[i]t is not
enough for individual men and women to know [...]” (p. 26); “[a] skilled craftsman
(or craftswoman) probably needed [...]” (p. 64); etc.
In the comic book, the inclusive language of the essay is translated into images that
represent both genders cooperating in different activities such as hunting, harvesting
or armed conflics. In the graphic novel, both men and women become references of the
Homo sapiens species. Meanwhile, we would like to highlight that Harari gives protagonism to prehistoric
women through one of the most important paratextual elements of any publication: he
chooses a young female cave art painter as the central character on the comic book
cover (Figure 4). Thus, he seems to start an imaginary conversation with , who wondered the following: “How could our ancestor of long ago paint so delicately?
[...] How could he? Or was it she?” (p. 3).
Figure 4Book cover ()
In our opinion, the best comic book representation of the anti-patriarchal vision
of prehistoric women is a creative adaptation of the famous human evolution illustration
(from ape to man), hierarchically organised and inspired by Darwin’s research. This
new version of the classic image includes a Neanderthal woman in the process of evolution
(Figure 5). We believe that the comic panel represents a translation of the following sentence
from the essay: “Not only do we possess an abundance of uncivilised cousins, once
upon a time we had quite a few brothers and sisters as well” (). In summary, in accordance with framework, Harari, together with his team, translates the essay by emphasising the
role of both genders in the early stages of human life.
Figure 5Representation of gender diversity ()
CONCLUSIONS
Upon studying the dialogue established between both versions of Sapiens, the textual and the multimodal ones, we have observed similarities as well as differences
in the approach to diversity representation in prehistoric times. Thus, we have realised
that gender diversity is preserved in both works: through inclusive language in the
case of the essay and through images of women dissociated from the dominant stereotypes
in the comic book. We can say, in line with , that Harari translates inclusive language into images and gives an important role
to the prehistoric woman in his graphic novel, by intensifying the feminist message
of the essay. On the other hand, the sexual-affective diversity is more present in
the comic book than in the essay: it is expressed both through the ironic characters,
two gay Neanderthals, and through an intense debate on the supposedly unnatural basis
of homosexual relationships. In this way, Harari rewrites the original content in
order to expand and adapt it to his ideological vision and that of his collaborators.
As for the representation of ethno-cultural diversity, the author’s ideological position
is more pronounced in the comic book. Harari tries to show that, no matter how different
we are, we share the same origin: the African continent. Moreover, although sexual-affective,
ethno-cultural, and gender diversity in prehistoric times are represented in the comic,
we have not found examples of other expressions of diversity such as functional or
age diversity. Probably, this is due to the lack of scientific knowledge about these
aspects in regards to prehistoric times.
What might have led Harari to pay so much attention to diversity in the comic book
and why has he paid less attention to diversity in the essay? Firstly, we believe
that the paradigm shift may be due to the unexpected success of the essay, which had
to be transformed in order to keep gaining more readers. As ) points out, “the original is never static but must always be in the process of composition
and revision” (p. 126). Harari’s book, initially created for his university students,
has become a global phenomenon and, by being translated intersemiotically, needed
to find a new audience. The multimodal translation of Sapiens stresses the need to make prehistory accessible to a wider public. Due to the growing
interest of the readership, the book seeks to focus more on the problems of today’s
society and relate them to prehistoric society.
Secondly, it is important to take into account the communicative potential of comics.
As states, “[w]hile words can be abstract, images must be concrete”. Thus, when it comes
to writing an essay, it is possible to say Sapiens, without specifying whether we are talking about men or women, while in the graphic
format it is essential to decide if we are going to illustrate men, women, or people
of both genders. The same situation occurs with skin colour: in the case of images,
it is necessary to decide which colour we will attribute to Sapiens, Neanderthals,
etc.
Finally, we cannot forget that we are dealing with a translation, which not only contains
Harari’s perspective, but also that of the adaptor, the illustrator and, of course,
the diversity consultant. The translation analysis, carried out according to model, has shown that ideology played a key role in the transfer of the essay to
the comic book.
Therefore, the Israeli historian, assisted by his team, creates a multimodal product
that establishes a relationship between prehistory and the present, seeks to break
down stereotypes about the life of our ancestors, and highlights the strong connection
between today’s humans and humans in the past. By challenging ethnocentric, patriarchal
and heterosexist ideas about the early stages of human life, Harari, through his comic
book, not only seeks to shape alternative ways of interpreting those bygone times,
but also to raise awareness about the pluralism that constitutes our current society,
since, as states, “prehistory is exciting because [...] therein lies the basis of what configures
us as human beings” (p. 63).
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Notes
[1] All the original Spanish quotations that appear in this paper have been translated
into English by the author.
[2] One of the best examples of this type of comics is Lucy: l'espoir (2007), created with the assistance of one of those who discovered the “Lucy” skeleton,
an australopithecine that lived more than three million years ago.
