The aim of this paper is to present the results of an international systematic theoretical review of the emerging notion of global competence, identifying its potential for literary education. The sources under review are articles and research papers published in the last fifteen years and selected from specialised databases. The study shows how global competence is shaped by mobilising dimensions such as understanding multiple perspectives, communicating effectively with diverse audiences, inquiring about the world, and taking ethically responsible action, along with components such as intercultural awareness and critical literacy. In this educational context, the role of a literary education that connects students with the world, accompanying them in the discovery, analysis, and interpretation of global and multicultural issues, through children’s and young adult literature, is analysed. In conclusion, it is stated that this perspective implies the revision of the literary canon and the application of methodological proposals for mediation that focus on classroom management and communicative interaction strategies based on texts.
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How to Cite
Bermúdez-Martínez, M., & Iñesta-Mena, E. M. (2023). Global competence and literary education: theoretical foundations and critical contributions. Ocnos. Journal of reading research, 22(2). https://doi.org/10.18239/ocnos_2023.22.2.341
Bermúdez-Martínez and Iñesta-Mena: Global competence and literary education: theoretical foundations and critical contributions
Introduction
Global competence is a cutting-edge educational initiative to meet the demands of
21st century society. It requires dynamic, engaged and interdisciplinary learning
to understand and act on issues of global concern. It is thus a necessary response
to the new global framework in which multilingual and intercultural communication
is a widespread phenomenon due to migratory movements, the development of intercommunications
and world trade. In the global village created in our societies, education systems
are integrated and must evolve to respond to classrooms that are qualitatively very
different from those that gave rise to them. This work is within a framework that
offers a critical review of the concept of global competence from an educational perspective
and its application in literary didactics, to identify its potential for literary
education.
A descriptive and systematic review is presented, aimed at synthesising and updating
knowledge and learning about trends and lines of research in the field. The search
and selection process was carried out in specialised international databases (mainly
Web of Science and SCOPUS), starting with the terms “global competence”, “education”
and “children’s and young adult literature”, in Spanish and English. Articles and
research papers published over the last fifteen years in journals and publishers specialising
in education and literary studies were analysed. Firstly, the results of the review
concerning the configuration of global competence are presented. Secondly, as a derivation
of the previous analysis, those referring to its connection with intercultural competence
and critical literacy. Finally, points of convergence of global competence with children’s
and young adult literature are identified which justify its interest for literary
education.
Global competence
In 2010, the National Education Association (NEA) announced, as a challenge and opportunity
for schools in the twenty-first century, the need to prepare young people to address
and understand global issues in a diverse and changing world. Merryfield (, ) already outlined a global education based on the development of “knowledge, skills
and attitudes necessary for decision-making and effective participation in a world
characterised by interconnectedness, cultural pluralism and increasing competition
for resources” (1994, p. 4). This line of work has been explored since then through
different proposals (; ).
The conceptualisation of global competence was initially developed by the Council
of Chief State School Office (CCSSO) and the Asia Society, informed by research led
by Boix-Mansilla at Harvard Project Zero at the Harvard Graduate School of Education.
Its development was endorsed by UNESCO and the OECD in the framework of global citizenship
education also linked to the Sustainable Development Goals (; ; ). The relevance of these proposals led to their incorporation in the PISA 2018 reports
(the result of a 2013 decision by its governing board), becoming one of the dimensions
of the future 2030 education framework (). Similarly, TALIS, the OECD’s international study on Teaching and Learning, analyses
teacher preparation and responsiveness in some of its dimensions ().
In recent decades, specific practices have been developed and evaluated in different
education systems, such as those reported by , including countries such as Australia, Canada, Cuba, Finland, Hong Kong, Japan,
Kuwait, Singapore and the United States, among others. In Spain, its emerging and
still scarce development is especially linked to the PISA framework (; ; ; ; Zubillaga, 2020; ).
In its policy on developing global competence for American schools, the identified tolerance, commitment to cooperation, awareness of a common humanity and
a sense of responsibility as key elements. In its definition as “the acquisition of
in-depth knowledge and understanding of international issues” (p. 1), it highlighted
four basic elements: international awareness, appreciation of cultural diversity,
foreign language proficiency and competitive skills linked to creativity and innovation.
In their baseline study on this competence, define it as “the ability and willingness to understand and act on issues of global
importance” (p. xiii). In the OECD framework, these contributions are being integrated
by defining it as the “ability to examine local, global and intercultural issues to
understand and appreciate other people’s perspectives and worldviews, to engage in
open, appropriate and effective interactions with people from different cultures,
and to act for collective well-being and sustainable development” ().
There are differences in approaches to this competence depending on geographical location,
applications or whether it focuses on the individual or on interpersonal relationships
(). Also, as noted in OECD (, ), in addition to Western theories, it is interesting to consider related concepts
from other cultural discourses, such as the South African “Ubuntu” (; ). highlights the following key elements that converge in different cultures: “respect,
listening, adaptation, relationship building, multi-perspective vision, self-awareness
and cultural humility” (). In the Spanish framework, propose a “Changemaker Global Competence” as a “synthesis of the global competence
proposed by the OECD and the entrepreneurial, social and civic competences of the
EU key competences”.
Like all competences, global competence brings into play knowledge, skills, attitudes
and values (; ). The knowledge relates to global issues needed to participate in today’s world.
In addition to information, they require understanding, i.e. the ability to interrelate
ideas, transfer and apply knowledge to other contexts, situations or issues. According
to , “knowledge on its own does not comprise intercultural understanding. One can know,
and continue to judge and dismiss”. Understanding other values does not necessarily
imply acceptance but, as show, seeing them through another cultural filter, and an “opportunity to deepen
and inflect on one’s own values” (). This develops an intercultural outlook based on the premise of recognising the
multiple influences that shape our personal perspective and that of others (be they
religion, gender, socio-economic status, etc.). Secondly, the competence approach
includes the development of skills, the concept being understood as the ability to
carry out a complex and well-organised pattern of thinking or behaviour in order to
achieve a certain goal. Here we could list: the ability to communicate effectively
and appropriately with people from other cultures or countries; the understanding
of other people’s thoughts, beliefs and feelings and the ability to see the world
from their perspectives; the adjustment of one’s own thoughts, feelings and behaviours
to new contexts and situations; and the ability to analyse and think critically in
order to scrutinise and evaluate information and meanings (). Thirdly, a certain attitude is necessary for the mobilisation of knowledge and
skills: openness towards people from other cultures or countries, respect for cultural
otherness, as well as a global mindset of world citizens who are committed and take
responsibility for their own actions. And finally, these attitudes are structured
on values, understood as beliefs that transcend specific actions and contexts by guiding
attitudes, judgements and actions (). The development of critical and analytical thinking skills and the appreciation
of human dignity and cultural diversity are key filters for global competence, linking
it to intercultural competence and critical literacy.
Recovering concept of signature pedagogy, which refers to a set of pedagogical practices that
define a specific professional domain, Boix-Mansilla and offer a series of experiences that outline, in everyday learning environments, what
we could call the distinctive pedagogy of global competence: willingness to inquire
about the world, to understand multiple perspectives, willingness towards respectful
dialogue and responsible action. It is these dispositions that define the main dimensions
of global competence (). offers designs for the application of each dimension in specific routines for educational
practices.
The first of the dimensions, “Investigating our world”, aims to open our eyes beyond
our own environment and to visualise significant issues and problems that affect societies
globally. It is necessary to know how to identify topics of interest, their value
and significance, developing strategies of analysis, synthesis and evaluation that
make it possible to discuss, conclude and construct answers. From there, we move on
to the second dimension, “Recognition of perspectives” - our own and others’ -, analysing
them, identifying the parameters that configure them and explaining their web of influences
and variables (such as access to knowledge and technology, available resources, etc.).
We then move on to the third dimension, “Taking action”, a necessary step towards
action based on the subject's awareness of his or her role as an agent, with action
understood as personal or collaborative participation that contributes to improving
conditions in a creative, reflective and ethical manner. This action connects with
the fourth dimension, “Communicating ideas”, building ideological, geographical or
cultural bridges, with appropriate means for effective and efficient communication
in an interdependent world. In short, it is about investigating the world beyond personal
experience, recognising other perspectives and giving way to transformative action
through effective communicative processes.
Building Global Competence: Intercultural Competence and Critical Literacy
Intercultural competence is key to the development of global competence, both for
understanding worldviews and perspectives and for engaging in open, appropriate and
effective interactions between cultures. In this context, global competence requires
understanding and acting with difference and complexity, through research and comparison
or sharing. states that “multicultural education puts emphasis on the local community and our
relationship within our borders” (p. 50), while “global education stresses the interconnectedness
with the word” (p. 50). combine the two fields by defining multicultural and global education as:
the educational process of acquiring certain knowledge, skills, and values to participate
actively in a complex, pluralistic and interconnected world society and to work together
for change in individuals and institutions in order to make that world society more
just and human ().
Intercultural competence has been approached from many different perspectives over
a long period of reflection (; ). From an educational perspective, according to Deardoff () it can be understood as “the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately
in intercultural situations” (p. 247); from the perspective of , as the “ability to interact effectively and appropriately with people from other
cultures” (p. 471). argue: “the appropriate and effective management of interaction between people who,
to some degree or another, represent different or divergent affective, cognitive,
and behavioural orientations to the world” (p. 7), referring to categories such as
nationality, race, ethnicity, tribe, religion or region.
Theories of intercultural competence have grown in complexity from individual-based
models to more systemic ones that incorporate and highlight contextual factors (). Its current implementation in the field of education (; , inter alia) is linked to global competence. In line with the intercultural education
promoted by , intercultural competence will reinforce global competence when intercultural knowledge,
attitudes and skills, as well as respect for and integration into diverse societies,
provide learners with the necessary tools for active and full participation in society.
This broadened perspective leads us to consider the role of critical literacy in building
global competence.
Literacy, as a social practice evolving throughout history, is culturally and ideologically
charged, hence the traditional link between literacy processes and power. Vygotski
and Freire already highlighted the value of the human being linked to the capacity
to reason, understand and transform the environment and oneself, stressing the fundamental
role of the context. From this perspective the concepts of “problematisation” and
“conscientization” (Freire, , ) help to understand the role of critical literacy in the development of global competence.
Problematisation processes bring to the table the importance of questioning reality
(unveiling or critical insertion) which leads to awareness, i.e. the ability to perceive,
reflect, position oneself and act. The development of global competence applies the
same perspective, and in the same vein are critical pedagogies based on learning from
the posing and solving of problems of common interest, dialogue and collaboration
(; ; ; ). They thus show a way towards an education that promotes critique, equity and social
action, as indicated by theories of global competence (; ).
In their review of critical literacy, highlight four dimensions: 1) dismantle the commonplace; 2) interrogate multiple
points of view; 3) focus on socio-political issues; 4) take action and promote social
justice. According to , critical literacy - as a philosophy - “distinguishes itself from other kinds of
literacy in the way addresses issues of power, social injustice, and transformative
action” (p. 16) and goes beyond the individual sphere (rational thinking skills along
the lines of critical thinking theories) to incorporate the social sphere, which involves
factors of a cultural, historical or political nature, in a network of interrelationships.
It examines the impact of thought on social transformation: “critical literacy marks
the use of language (tools) to exercise power, improve lives and/or challenge sources
of privilege and injustice” (, cited by ). In terms of textual analysis, critical literacy can be assimilated to critical
thinking, from its position on the nature and intention of messages, responding to
how the text works, what its effects are, under what circumstances it is produced
and to what kind of audience it is addressed. However, critical literacy increases
and empowers subject participation through enquiry, raising questions that place the
individual or community directly facing the problem (; ). Today, critical literacy is becoming more relevant by integrating media literacy
(; ) and adopting an inclusive educational approach (; ; ).
Global competence in literary education
The following is a review of contributions that justify the potential of literary
texts to provide a literary education linked to the development of global competence.
The key idea behind the proposals is that literature is an important instrument of
cultural expression and communication, endowing the literary text with an outstanding
value for dialogue between individuals and cultures. Twentieth-century literary theory
also focuses on the receiver as an active creator of meaning, understanding literary
reading as a plural and polysemic activity (; ). This is the leading force that operates in literature by bringing the mechanisms
of the imagination into play, providing aesthetic enjoyment and facilitating spaces
of communication on which to build plural and intercultural thought. This power is
expressed by through the image of books as “windows, glass doors and mirrors”:
Books are sometimes windows, offering views of worlds that may be real or imagined,
familiar or strange. These windows are also sliding glass doors, and readers have
only to walk through in imagination to become part of whatever world has been created
or recreate by the author. When lighting conditions are just right, however, a window
can also be a mirror. Literature transforms human experience and reflects it back
to us, and in that reflection we can see our own lives and experiences as part of
the larger human experience. Reading, then, becomes a means of self-affirmation, and
readers often seek mirrors in books ().
The same metaphor allows Cox and Galda (), Landt () or Rietschlin () to express the cultural transmission capacity of literature. Thus, Elisa Bonilla
() uses this image in relation to literature, education and cultural diversity, to
refer to “mirror books” from which I make my language and culture known and “window
books”, from which I understand other languages and cultures. For her part, Jella
Lepman () used the metaphor of the “bridge” to refer to the value of literature as a means
of establishing links between cultures. It also inspires the Only Connect intercultural
education project aimed at “fighting stereotypes and promoting understanding, tolerance
and respect for others” through children’s literature (). Then there is the value of literature as an integrating instrument, which allows
reflecting and incorporating the multiplicity of origins, backgrounds and experiences
of the students, because although other instruments can convey these aims, authors
such as Stan () or Jokota () recall the power of literature as an experience, to live and understand other lives
through fiction, thanks to the identification that occurs during the reading process:
Nonfiction books may help readers gain factual information about a culture; however,
it is fiction that allows us to experience the feelings and thoughts that guide the
values and beliefs of our lifestyles. By vicariously living in another culture, we
begin to gain an understanding of why people live as they do ().
Studies such as Case (), , , and , among others, have highlighted the effectiveness of working with literature as a
way of getting to know the other. From cognitive literary criticism, analyses the importance of works of fiction for cognitive, emotional, ethical and
aesthetic development, with a special focus on empathy and the shaping of mental models
for real life. , , and McCaffrey and highlight the need to address multicultural and global literature in classrooms.
see the space of convergence between comparative literature and didactics of language
and literature as a scenario for the development of intercultural competence. In the
same vein, call for literary education for social, cultural and political cohesion, which facilitates
the treatment of diversity in its full extent.
In the web of aesthetic artefacts that constitute current children’s and young adult
literature, there is a series of texts that we propose as privileged vehicles for
a literary education that develops global competence. In the US we thus find references
to a “global” literature (; ) that includes, alongside international literature, texts by immigrant authors writing
about their countries of origin and by indigenous writers who bring other scenarios
to the fore. On the basis of this systematisation, defines the global literature as “literature published abroad in the home language
or translated into English as well as literature published within the United States
by immigrants or American authors creating authentic representation of global cultures”
(pp. 16-17).
In this group we can refer to the so-called “multicultural children’s and young adult
literature”, which emphasises as an integrating element and vehicle of cultural communication in the
classroom, defining it as that which “literature that represents any distinct cultural
group through accurate portrayal and rich detail” (p. 157). , framing his definition in the American literary scene, noted: “Multicultural literature
is literature about racial or ethnic minority groups that are culturally and socially
different from the White Anglo-Saxon majority in the United States, whose largely
middle-class values and customs are most represented in American literature” (). In the words of , “this literature presents or brings together several cultures in the same socio-historical
context and with children’s or young adult characters” (p. 63). For these are “works whose main theme or setting is the culture of other areas of the
world and other ethnic groups”. As points out for the European framework, this literature experienced a boom in Austria,
Germany and Switzerland from the 1970s onwards, with books written by German-language
authors about immigrant cultures living together in these countries.
Although there are different possibilities for classifying texts (), our interest, beyond establishing classificatory criteria, lies in identifying
some textual typologies that are particularly interesting for working with global
competence. We can thus highlight a series of aesthetic artefacts which, by combining
different parameters (thematic, aesthetic, cultural, interpretative...) can respond
to an opening up of the canon that favours the development of global competence from
an early age:
1. In the first place, we would point to folk tales and other traditional expressions
from different countries around the world, which are a cultural and identity sign
of peoples, and a constant reference in the bibliographies of global and multicultural
children’s and young adult literature. Although all literary texts, as cultural expressions,
refer us to a certain culture, there are texts that are particularly marked from this
perspective (). It is important to pay attention to criteria such as cultural accuracy developed
by which integrates the criteria of cultural richness and detail, authenticity in dialogues
and relationships, and depth of treatment of cultural aspects, among others. , and also stress this aspect of the need to ensure cultural quality and authenticity in
order to avoid stereotyping, an idea shared by , who refers to various studies that suggest that racial and cultural stereotypes
begin to develop as early as 3 or 4 years of age.
2. Secondly, we would identify those texts that deal explicitly and from a thematic
point of view with global issues and problems related to multiculturalism and intercultural
relations: exile, migration, adoption, miscegenation, identity... ().
3. Thirdly, there are the texts of what call “literature of difference” which, from less explicit but “easily interpretable”
positions, “defend respect for difference and tolerance”. Some works implicitly deal
with identity, difference and diversity. These typologies are presented in , along with specific examples and mediation proposals.
4. Finally, we would place historical fiction books for children and young people,
which, from different perspectives, approach issues of a socio-political and historical
nature, from a closer reality or from a distant past. Whether from direct keys or
allegorical perspectives, they allow us to delve into historical and social reality,
as well as to address issues of global interest.
In conclusion, we list some of the advantages or benefits of working with this type
of texts, as systematised, based on various studies, by : more motivating reading experiences, which encourage dialogue and exchange of ideas;
broadening of worldviews and perspectives; boosting self-confidence through the integration
and valuing of different cultural perspectives, assuming difference as a value; and
deeper and more critical participation in global problems (poverty, oppression, refugees,
ecology...) to understand the interconnectivity in the world and develop forms of
creative problem-solving that can benefit communities, beyond the known local environment.
A proposal linked to environmental awareness from the paradigm of ecocriticism can
be found in . Working with this type of literature, through the implementation of specific mediation
methodologies, will also help to develop communication skills.
In addition to rethinking the creation of a canon that allows for the plurality and
complexity of texts that enable us to work with global competence - a fundamental
element in favouring integration and the path to success for all - it is urgent to
rethink mediation strategies. Firstly, literary texts have been written to be read
and not as an instrument for linguistic exercise or as a prelude to “biographical,
historical or ideological works” (). Hence the importance of actually bringing literature into the classroom, creating
spaces for reading for pleasure, which cannot be identified with mere inconsequential
amusement (). Secondly, the role of the teacher is not to impose readings and/or interpretations,
but to act as a guide, proposing possible paths to follow, based on individual and
personal choices and interpretations, the result of personal choices and readings.
The focus of the practices is the literary conversation. In this line, we highlight
the democratic and anti-erudite reading clubs (), in the form of literary gatherings that allow for contrasting visions and exchanging,
from egalitarian positions, readings of texts. We refer to specific dialogic reading
practices () whose ingredients - egalitarian dialogue, cultural intelligence, transformation,
instrumental dimension, solidarity, equality of differences (; Walls, 2000; ) - only highlight, finally, the dimensions of global competence.
and also focus on mediation mechanisms, with the teacher as a guide and the development
of dialogical interpretative practices (; Levstik, 1990). Studies such as , , , or highlight the importance of aesthetic gaze and dialogical interactions as ways of
developing global competence through literature. argue that activities such as role-play, research and small group discussion are
effective means of addressing the development of intercultural sensitivity (). also stresses the importance of the dialogical approach (through literary circles,
book clubs, discussion groups...) and links the aesthetic response with empathic impulses
that make us connect our lives with the texts, highlighting the transformative power
of literature and its role in changing the vision of reality and promoting social
justice.
Conclusions
The review conducted, initially focused on the concept of global competence and its
application to the field of literary education, has led to the framing of theoretical
and research work, which is fundamental for understanding its origin and evolution,
as well as other essential concepts for its configuration, among which intercultural
competence and critical literacy stand out. Its application to the specific framework
of literary teaching practices supports the commitment to open up the literary canon
to global and intercultural children’s and young adult literature texts, as a way
of developing global competence and, consequently, attitudes of openness, respect
and intercultural understanding. In this sense, our gaze has been extended to certain
mediation practices based on dialogical interpretation, as fundamental mediating processes
for the development of global competence through children’s and young adult literature.
In conclusion, literary education, with global competence in perspective, can develop
readers who are open and permeable to linguistic and cultural diversity, who are aware
of the cultural complexity that characterises contemporary societies and who possess
the necessary skills for its interpretation. In this sense, the conjunction of literary
texts of global scope and multicultural character with specific mediation practices
focused on reading, free interpretation and dialogue provide a frame of reference
for the design of a specific pedagogy for the development of global competence through
children’s and young adult literature.
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